Scientists use genetic engineering to manipulate the DNA in an organism’s genome and enhance or modify certain characteristics. Such engineering can be applied to any organism, from a virus to a plant.¹

Genetic manipulation is often used to introduce a new, favorable characteristic into the recipient organism, such as tolerance to a chemical herbicide or resistance to insect attacks. It can also be used to alter the organism’s genes’ activity, such as slowing down natural decay.

Key takeaways

• Genetic engineering modifies an organism’s DNA to produce or enhance desired traits through methods like vectors and gene guns.
• It has broad applications across plants, animals, and microorganisms, improving agriculture, enabling medical advancements, and supporting fundamental research.
• CRISPR technology revolutionized gene editing with its precision and accessibility, leading to human therapies and gene-edited food available for purchase.

What is genetic manipulation?

Genetic engineering is a process that uses laboratory-based technology to alter an organism’s DNA and produce a desired trait. This includes deleting a region of a DNA strand, adding a new segment, or altering a base pair.²

DNA is the genetic code found in humans and almost all other organisms that make them behave and appear as they do. Most DNA is housed in the cell nucleus, but a small amount of DNA is also found in the mitochondria — the structures within cells that convert the energy from food into a form that cells can process and use.³

How genetic engineering works

DNA’s double helix consists of a base pair: two bases on opposite strands of the DNA molecule. A base pair forms one ‘rung’ on the DNA ‘ladder’. Among base pairs:

• A (adenine) binds with T (thymine)
• C (cytosine) binds with G (guanine)⁴

Genetic manipulation may change one base pair (A-T or C-G), remove a whole region of DNA, or add an additional copy of a gene. Gene modification could also include extracting DNA from one organism’s genome and joining it with the DNA of another.

While methods of genetic modification vary, the process generally follows these steps:⁵

1. Identify the genetic information desired for the organism.
2. Isolate and copy the information from the organism that displays that trait.
3. Insert that characteristic into the desired organism.
4. Propagate the organism.

Methods of genetic modification

Methods for genetic manipulation have rapidly evolved over the last century, from basic animal husbandry and inserting genes from one organism into another to more advanced methods of directly editing the genome.

1. Plasmid method. Plasmids are small circular pieces of a DNA molecule used to alter microorganisms, such as bacteria. The plasmid is placed in a container with enzymes that cut the plasmid up into small pieces and then joined with the gene of interest.⁶ 
2. Vector method. This method uses a ‘vehicle’ or vector to transfer foreign genetic material from one cell to another. Vectors are typically viruses that attach to a cell and insert DNA into the host cell before detaching. The DNA, now part of the host cell, will start replicating as part of the genetic information of the host cell and producing the desired trait.⁷
3. Biolistic method. The gene gun method, or biolistic method, uses a gene gun to ‘fire’ DNA particles into a cell. DNA can adhere to extremely small particles of metal, such as gold, silver, or tungsten. The DNA-coated metal particles are placed inside the gene gun, a slight vacuum is created between the gun and the tissue, and the DNA particles are shot into the targeted cell.⁸

Applications of genetic engineering

Genetic modification is used in a variety of applications, from the food we eat to microorganisms.

Genetic manipulation of plants

The purpose of plant manipulation varies, from creating crops with enhanced traits for increased yield, improved nutritional content, to reducing our reliance on pesticides.

• Pest resistance: One common application is the introduction of genes from a soil bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt), into crops like corn and cotton. These Bt crops produce proteins that are toxic to specific insect pests and reduce the need for chemical insecticides. Bt corn acreage in the United States reached 86% in 2024, according to the USDA.⁹
• Drought resistance: As climate change presents new challenges, researchers are developing genetically engineered crops that can withstand arid conditions. For instance, a drought-tolerant corn variety was developed using a gene from Bacillus subtilis. It activates a protein in the plan that helps mitigate damaging drought effects.¹⁰
• Disease resistance: Genetic engineering is used to introduce genes that confer resistance to various plant diseases. For example, Hawaiian papaya crops were devastated by the papaya ringspot virus until genetically engineered virus-resistant varieties were introduced in the 1990s.¹¹

Genetic manipulation of animals

Genetic engineering in animals is employed for a variety of purposes, from improving livestock productivity and disease resistance to biomedical applications.

• Disease resistance: Researchers are working to engineer animals with increased resistance to common diseases, reducing the need for antibiotics. For example, the FDA approved the use of gene-editing technology that creates pigs that are resistant to porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome (PRRS) virus, a disease that caused $1.2 billion in losses per year for the U.S. pork industry between 2016 and 2020.¹²
• Research models: Genetically engineered animals, particularly mice, are used as research tools for understanding human diseases and testing new therapies. Scientists can introduce or deactivate specific genes in mice to mimic human conditions like cancer, Alzheimer’s, or cystic fibrosis, providing critical insights into disease mechanisms.¹³

Genetic manipulation of microorganisms

The genetic engineering of microorganisms is also used across various industries, from medicine and biotechnology to environmental remediation and food production.

• Insulin production: One of the earliest examples of microorganism genetic engineering is the alteration of E. coli bacteria to produce human insulin. Previously, insulin for diabetics was extracted from animal pancreases. Humulin, a recombinant human insulin, became the first genetically engineered drug approved by the FDA.¹⁴
• Enzyme production: Genetically engineered microbes produce industrial enzymes used in countless applications, including detergents, food processing, textiles, and paper manufacturing. These enzymes offer more efficient and environmentally friendly alternatives to traditional chemical processes.¹⁵

CRISPR: the next step in genetic manipulation

CRISPR-Cas is a technology of genetic engineering that allows the genetic material of viruses, bacteria, cells, plants, and animals to be altered in a relatively simple, but very accurate and efficient way. The technology works by changing characteristics through genetic alterations or by adding entirely new genetic information.¹⁶

• 2007: Bacterial immunity discovered

Researchers Rodolphe Barrangou and Philippe Horvath at Danisco, a leading yogurt culture producer, discovered something in the bacterium Streptococcus thermophilus. They found unusual clusters of repeated DNA sequences, or CRISPRs, that matched the DNA of viruses that attacked the yogurt culture. This ‘genetic memory’ allowed the bacteria to identify and fight off these invading viruses.¹⁷

• 2008: A universal editing tool

A year later, Erik Sontheimer and Luciano Marraffini at Northwestern University published a paper suggesting that CRISPR could be an all-purpose genome-editing tool. Their research demonstrated that the spacers between the bacterial CRISPR segments effectively ‘cut up’ the invading viral DNA, rendering the virus harmless. They theorized that these repeating spacers could be programmed to target and alter genetic material in most living things.¹⁸

• 2012: Therapeutic potential emerges

In 2012, Jennifer Doudna and Emmanuelle Charpentier discovered how CRISPR could potentially provide gene therapy for patients with genetic diseases.¹⁹ In 2013, Feng Zhang and George Church built on this research and demonstrated CRISPR’s efficacy in editing human and mouse cells, specifically highlighting its therapeutic applications for nervous system disorders.²⁰

How CRISPR works

You can think about CRISPR like the ‘find and replace’ function in a word processor, but for DNA: CRISPR finds the genetic data you wish to alter and replaces it with new material.

There are three key components that allow CRISPR to work effectively:²¹

1. Guide RNA (gRNA). A piece of RNA (a genetic cousin of DNA) is engineered in a lab that finds the targeted gene.
2. CRISPR-associated protein 9 (Cas9). The ‘scissors’ that cut out the undesired DNA.
3. DNA (new material). The desired piece of DNA that is inserted after the cut.

CRISPR is more affordable and available than earlier forms of genetic engineering. Research institutions deliver CRISPR components worldwide — non-profit Addgene reports sharing nearly 300,000 CRISPR plasmids since the organization’s start.²²

CRISPR-edited organisms are already in our grocery stores:

• In 2023, CRISPR-edited mustard greens hit U.S. shelves, engineered to remove the pungency that makes them taste bitter while keeping the nutritional value.²³
• CRISPR gene editing is being used to make larger tomato varieties sweeter, like cherry tomatoes, by disabling genes that limit sugar production.²⁴

When it comes to genetic modification and engineering on plants, animals, and microorganisms, the methods listed ultimately result in the same thing: altering the basic DNA structure of a cell in order to bring about a preferred characteristic. As these scientific methods continue to improve, dynamic gene modification will continue to provide alternative solutions to the way we live on the earth.

Explore the possibilities of CRISPR genetic engineering with online health science courses offered on GetSmarter in collaboration with the world’s leading universities.

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CRISPR: Gene-editing Applications

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Unsupervised Machine Learning: Unlocking the Potential of Data

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Artificial Intelligence in Health Care

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Big data is defined as large datasets that are too vast or complicated to be processed by traditional data applications.² Businesses depend on storage and processing power, as well as robust data analytics and skills, to harvest the value from these large datasets. The insights produced by big data are especially useful for industries that deal with large amounts of information, such as healthcare, biomedical research, and genetic research sectors.³

Big data and genetic research

Technological advancements have enabled scientists to quickly create, store, and analyze data that, until recently, would have taken years to compile and interpret.⁴ New biomedical techniques, such as next-generation genome sequencing, are generating large volumes of data and leading to scientific breakthroughs. However, a considerable hurdle to big data in medicine is both its volume and the sources from which it’s derived – which are numerous.⁵ For example, precision medicine is a novel approach to healthcare that uses personal information, including genetic, environmental, and lifestyle data, to help prevent, diagnose, and treat common and complex diseases.⁶ Scientists have attempted to do this in a study aimed at gathering and linking the electronic health records and data of one million Americans, in order to categorize and capture entire genome sequences, cell populations, proteins, metabolites, ribonucleic acid (RNA), deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), as well as behavioral data. That’s a lot of data. The practical application of data science in genetic research is vast, but translating big data into useful insight that can be used for research and innovation is a big challenge.⁷

In today’s fast-changing, big data-fueled world, being a genetic researcher means working with algorithms that process swaths of generic data and managing data processing software. Dr. Anne Corcoran, Group Leader at the Babraham Institute in Cambridge, U.K. says, “When I started hiring Ph.D. students 15 years ago, they were entirely wet lab [specialized laboratories dealing with hazardous substances]. Now when we recruit them, the first thing we look for is if they can cope with complex bioinformatic analysis.”⁸

Machine learning (ML), a part of AI, also has a place in genetic research. It uses data-analysis techniques that are applied to multi-dimensional datasets so that predictive models can be built and insights gained.⁹ ML helps scientists study and understand complex cellular systems, such as genome or gene editing, and allows them to create models that learn to extrapolate information from big datasets and generate predictable outcomes.

What is gene editing?

There are several reasons for doing so, from improving understanding of how genes function to developing methods to treat genetic and acquired diseases. Genome editing can correct, introduce, or delete just about any DNA sequences in several cells and organisms.¹⁰

What is CRISPR?

There are several approaches to gene editing, among which is CRISPR-Cas9 (which stands for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats, and CRISPR-associated protein 9).¹¹

CRISPR is a specialized region in the DNA strand with two unique characteristics:¹²

1. The presence of nucleotide repeats. The repeated sequence of nucleotides¹³ (the basic building blocks of nucleic acids, which make DNA) are evident throughout a CRISPR region.
2. The presence of spacers. Spacers are pieces of DNA that occur among these repeated sequences. Bacteria take their spaces from viruses that have attacked the organism previously, and this allows the bacteria to recognize the virus DNA and defend itself from future attacks of that virus.

The CRISPR-Cas9 system works much the same way. Genetic researchers create a small piece of RNA with a “guide” sequence that binds to a target sequence of DNA in a genome, as well as the Cas9 enzyme, and is used to recognize the DNA sequence.¹⁴ The Cas9 enzyme then snips the DNA at the specified location, allowing researchers to utilize the cell’s own DNA repair mechanism to add, delete, or alter pieces of genetic material.

The CRISPR-Cas9 gene-editing technology is proving popular in the genetic research community and amongst scientists at large, as it provides a more affordable, accurate, and efficient means of genetic editing than other genome editing technologies.¹⁵

Big data in genetic research with CRISPR

Genetic research and data genetics are working together to create advances in science’s understanding of diseases. The large volumes of data that are now available to scientists, as well as technologies, are accelerating the development of new drugs and personalized therapies. This is showcased by the rise of customized treatments based on an individual’s unique genetic profile.¹⁶

Big data also provides healthcare professionals with access to the information needed to prescribe doses that are tailored to each patient, reducing the risk of side effects and drug resistance. This personalized-medicine approach has a prohibitive cost though and has resulted in widespread resistance to its uptake.¹⁷ However, the costs of sequencing and genome editing technologies, such as CRISPR, are consistently dropping. CRISPR’s ability to edit genomes and DNA cost-effectively means tailored solutions will become more affordable to develop and produce, and more accessible to the public.

Examples of how big data is changing genetic research

The uptake of CRISPR amongst researchers is growing around the world. For instance, cancer researchers have applied CRISPR as a mainstream methodology in many cancer biology studies and has been extended into trials with human subjects.¹⁸ With the use of big data, large computing systems, and CRISPR, modern technologies now combine with more traditional genetic mapping and are able to identify a minute-by-minute playbook of what takes place when the immune system reacts to the presence of a virus within a cell.

In America, agricultural scientists have combined CRISPR genome editing nucleases with big data and ML to optimize innovation in the agricultural sector.¹⁹ Using CRISPR technology and machine learning-based predictive analytics, they have created a genome editing system that allows for the improvement of plant properties such as flavor and nutrient density. This effectively mitigates the typically high research and development costs that have restricted advanced genomic innovation to a small selection of researchers in the past.

CRISPR is proving to be a revolutionary technology, with the power to treat cancer and enable food security. But in order to capture its market potential, you’ll need to understand the possibilities it brings to genetic engineering.

Unlock your understanding of CRISPR and gene-editing applications with this online short course

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In recent years ‘wearables’ have taken health care technology to new levels, allowing for real-time tracking of key physiological functions. Now, a research group at MIT has developed a new AI-enabled wireless monitoring technology known as ‘invisibles’. This smart technology offers all the benefits of ‘wearables’ without you having to wear anything on your body. Innovations such as these show the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) to transform health care.

Transcript

The role of machine learning in health care

Of course, there are many things that are changing in health care by introducing machine learning and AI, from understanding medical images to analyzing medical records of patients. But I am particularly interested in telling you about the advances that we have in digital health, and introducing digital health into our understanding of health care. And when I tell people about digital health, they typically think about wearables. They say, “Oh yeah, we are seeing these wearables such as Fitbits, for example.” That is used increasingly in understanding health and getting information about patients. I want to tell you about the next thing beyond the wearable, which is what we call ‘the invisibles’.

Discover new advances in digital health

We have invented a smart Wi-Fi-like box that we call the ’emerald box’. It’s very much similar to your Wi-Fi at home — it sits in the background of the home and it analyzes the electromagnetic waves in the environment. By analyzing these wireless signals in the environment, it can tell your breathing, your heartbeat, your movement, interaction with other people, without even asking you to wear any sensor on your body. Of course, when I tell people this, everyone is like, “Oh, like, how is that possible even? How can you get my breathing, my heartbeat without even touching me?” And it is really the power of these advances in machine learning, you should understand that, let’s step back: If you look around you, you are surrounded by a sea of Wi-Fi signal, of satellite signal, so there are plenty of wireless and electromagnetic waves around you. Now, every single move that you do, like you took a breath, the pulsing of your blood, it changes the electromagnetic shield around you. And what we are able to do is to design new machine learning algorithms that can analyze those changes in the electromagnetic waves to be able to tell.

I want to show you what we can achieve. Here, what you see on the slide, one of my students, this is our lab at MIT and one of the offices in the lab, and you see an arrow, that arrow is pointing to the wall because actually the device — our smart, wireless box — it’s not even in this office. It is in the adjacent office and it’s watching this person through the wall. Now, we’re going to make this person walk. And I want you to look at the red dot and how it’s able to track his motion. I want you to remember that it’s tracking him through the wall by just analyzing the wireless signal, and you can see that it tracks him pretty accurately.

Remember, like he has no sensors, no accelerometer, no cell phone on him, this is purely based on how wireless signal changes as it reflects off his body.

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Blockchain technology has a wide range of applications and uses in this sector, from facilitating the secure transfer of patient medical records and managing the medicine supply chain to the outbreak of diseases and helping healthcare researchers unlock genetic code.¹

Many healthcare organizations within a region, community, or system mobilize healthcare information electronically. This is known as a health information exchange, or an HIE. Let’s explore the essential facts around enhancing and improving your HIE with blockchain technology.

The basics of blockchain

Blockchain is a distributed, decentralized, public ledger that stretches across a computer network. There are six general, but well-defined steps in any blockchain: ²

How blockchain can optimize healthcare

Blockchain technology can be transformative in healthcare. It can help achieve:³

• Security
• Privacy
• The integration of health data

Capitalizing on this technology can connect fragmented systems to generate insights and assess the value of care more effectively. In the long term, a nationwide blockchain network for electronic medical records may improve efficiencies and support better health outcomes for patients.

Blockchain offers the opportunity for a new technological model in an HIE that makes electronic medical records more efficient and secure. It can also reduce or eliminate the friction and costs of current intermediaries.

Types of HIE health data

HIE data is used to improve the quality of healthcare, prevent errors, and increase the efficiency of administration. It includes:⁴

• Patient health information
• Electronic health records
• Data collected from Internet of Things (IoT) devices or monitoring systems
• Medical insurance claims
• E-prescribing
• Electronic dental records
• Secure messaging

Data breaches hit the healthcare industry hardest

According to the 2021 data breach report, the healthcare segment continues to be targeted by cyber criminals, having experienced more breaches than any other industry sector in 2021.⁵

In the first six months of 2021, 238 healthcare data breaches were reported.

In a forecast of healthcare and blockchain trends up until 2025, it was found that blockchain can reduce $100 billion in annual costs for data breaches, IT, operations, support functions, personnel, fraud, and insurance.⁶

Blockchain offers a solution to cyberattacks by decentralizing the domain name system (DNS) entries. By applying decentralized solutions, blockchain removes the vulnerable single points exploited by hackers.

Eight benefits of blockchain in healthcare

Before you invest in blockchain, it’s critical to assess the risks versus the rewards of introducing the technology into a healthcare system. Let’s start with the benefits:⁷

Six barriers to blockchain in healthcare

Introducing blockchain innovations into this industry isn’t without its challenges. Be aware of these commonly encountered limitations: ⁸

Seven healthcare companies leading the way in HIE and blockchain

Take a look at these seven companies, which are pioneering diverse blockchain applications in healthcare today.

Look beyond blockchain technology in healthcare

To appreciate blockchain’s various applications in healthcare, it’s important to understand how this type of distributed ledger technology works, and how it can be applied practically to the broader healthcare ecosystem, whether improving processes or enabling employees to realize their professional goals.

While blockchain currently helps healthcare professionals to conveniently maintain extensive patient records, the advantages must be considered within the scope of pervasive challenges.

It’s clear that blockchain has started to disrupt, innovate, and reimagine healthcare and the world of work, and will continue to do so in the future. With any technology – and particularly blockchain – it’s critical to keep up to date with the latest developments.

The Blockchain and Digital Currency: The Future of Money online short course from the University of Cape Town (UCT) will provide you with an in-depth understanding of how blockchain works, with a focus on crypto assets.

Discover how blockchain will impact the future of finance

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Evaluate OHSO training requirements

Get recognition from a professional body

In order to gain membership with a professional body such as the South African Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (SAIOSH), you’ll need an accredited certificate at NQF level 5 or equivalent, as well as some work experience under your belt. Being a recognised member establishes you as a professional in your field and may open doors for career growth and development.

Upgrade your skills

Complete an online course that will provide you with a broad overview of the different aspects of health and safety legislation and equip you to meet compliance requirements within any organisation. For example, the UCT Occupational Health and Safety online short course provides you with the knowledge needed to create a safe, productive working environment for employees.

University of Cape Town (UCT)
Occupational Health and Safety online short course

To further your skills, additional courses in labour law and facilities management could benefit you and your organisation – providing you with the tools to understand how to drive compliance across various industries.

Examine OHSO key responsibilities

The responsibilities can be broken down into:

Operations management

OHSOs may be responsible for supervising junior OHS staff, and conducting relevant health and safety training with other employees. If an accident occurs in the workplace, the responsibility falls to the OHSO to investigate the incident, and adjust future policies accordingly. Priorities may include:

• Improving internal processes and systems through relevant training
• Determining how different facility layouts will help or hinder production

Facilities management

As an OHSO, you need an eye for detail and a talent for problem-solving. You’ll apply these skill to:

• Analysing an organisation’s strategy to ensure alignment with facilities management best practice
• Updating facilities policies and processes to align with industry standards and legislation
• Implementing strategies for balancing maintenance and upgrades to the working environment

Labour law compliance

Your role may require you to manage compliance issues across your organisation, and implement systems and strategies in the workplace by:

• Promoting fair labour operations in all aspects of an organisation
• Understanding the complexities of employment legislation to ensure compliance and avoid labour disputes

Related content: What job opportunities are available in health and safety?

[WATCH THE VIDEO]

Explore your career path as an OHSO

The career prospects for an OHSO are incredibly diverse. With the sheer scope and complexity of national health and safety legislation, organisations are dependent on in-house specialists and external consultants to ensure their company meets compliance requirements.

Health and safety legislation is set at a government level and filters down into every single industry. As a professional in this field, businesses will rely on you for your insight and expertise, giving you the freedom to choose the industry in which you’d like to specialise.

How SAIOSH will support your journey as an OHS professional

Take the first step towards becoming an OHS practitioner with the UCT Occupational Health and Safety online short course, which is accredited by SAIOSH. SAIOSH is a non-profit organisation dedicated to improving their members’ skills by keeping them up-to-date with the latest developments in occupational health and safety. They’re also recognised by the South African Qualifications Authority, which will ensure your OHS skills are relevant worldwide.

[DISCOVER MORE BENEFITS OF SAIOSH RECOGNITION]

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Macro and micronutrients

The nutrients your body needs to promote growth and development and regulate bodily processes can be divided into two groups: macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are the nutrients your body needs in larger amounts, namely carbohydrates, protein, and fat.⁴ These provide your body with energy, or calories. Micronutrients are the nutrients your body needs in smaller amounts, which are commonly referred to as vitamins and minerals.⁵

Working together, both macro and micronutrients provide your body with what it needs to be healthy. A more in-depth look into the roles and functions they support in your body is discussed below.

Macronutrients are the elements in food that you need to grow and function normally. All macronutrients are obtained through the diet as the body can’t produce them on its own.⁷ Carbohydrates, protein, and fat are the three main suppliers of nutrition in your diet. While all macros provide valuable energy to your body, they each fulfil different functions.⁸

Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, and vegetables. They’re the most important source of quick energy in your diet because they’re easily broken down into glucose, which the muscles and brain use to function.⁹ While carbs are found in healthy foods like vegetables, they’re also found in unhealthy foods like cakes and doughnuts, which has given them a bad reputation in various diets. The important distinction to make in this instance is between simple and complex carbohydrates.¹⁰ The difference between the two is the chemical structure which affects how quickly the sugar is absorbed by the body.¹¹ Simple carbs, or ‘bad’ carbs, generally release sugar faster because they are made with processed and refined sugar and don’t contain any vitamins, minerals, or fibers.¹² Complex, or ‘good carbs’, are processed more slowly and are filled with various nutrients.¹³

Your daily intake of carbs will depend on various, personal considerations.¹⁶ However, when you do eat them, it’s important to choose the most energy and nutrient dense sources of carbohydrates.

Proteins are made up of amino acids and function as hormones, enzymes, and an antibody in the immune system.¹⁸ They make up parts of bodily structures like connective tissues, skin, hair, and muscle fibres.¹⁹ Unlike carbs, proteins don’t serve as a direct source of energy, but work like building blocks for other structures in the body. The nutritional value of a protein is measured by the quantity of essential amino acids that it contains, which varies depending on the food source.²⁰

Animal products, such as meat and fish, contain all of the essential amino acids. Soy products, quinoa, and the seeds of a leafy green called Amaranth also contain all of the essential amino acids.²¹ Plant proteins usually lack at least one amino acid, so eating a combination of different plant proteins throughout the day is important for vegetarians and vegans.²²

The recommended daily intake of protein is between 0.75 grams and 1 gram per kilogram of your body weight.²³

The distinction between saturated and unsaturated fats is important because your body only needs the latter.²⁵ Unsaturated fats regulate metabolism, maintain the elasticity of cell membranes, improve blood flow, and promote cell growth and regeneration. Fats are also important in delivering fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K into the body.²⁶

While your body doesn’t necessarily need saturated fats, they do provide your body with cholesterol, which plays an important role in hormone production. Your body does produce its own cholesterol, but a small amount introduced through your diet can help build cell membranes, produce hormones like oestrogen and testosterone, help your metabolism work, produce vitamin D, and produce bile acids which help digest fat and absorb nutrients.²⁷ However, a diet rich in cholesterol can increase the risk of heart disease.²⁸

Fats should make up between 30–35 per cent of your daily caloric intake, with a maximum of 10 per cent of that being saturated fats.²⁹

It’s clear that many of the foods in each group overlap, and each macro fulfills a crucial role in your overall health. A balanced diet with the appropriate amount and ratio of macronutrients is vital for a healthy body and mind.

Like macronutrients, your body doesn’t produce micronutrients in the quantities that it needs, so eating a diet rich in vitamins and minerals is essential for a healthy body.³¹ Vitamins are organic and can be broken down by elements such as heat, air, or acid – which means they can denature when cooked or exposed to air, making it slightly more difficult to ensure you’re getting them in your diet.³² Minerals on the other hand are inorganic and aren’t broken down in this way. This means that your body absorbs the minerals in the soil and water your food has come from.³³

Each vitamin and mineral has a specific role in your body, and the best way to ensure you’re meeting all your bodily needs is by eating a healthy, varied diet. Not only are micronutrients crucial for nearly every process in your body, they can also act as antioxidants.³⁴ In the right quantity, they protect your body against disease and deficiencies. Eating a balanced diet promotes this and improves your chances of getting a variety of minerals and vitamins through your food into your bloodstream. While they work together, vitamins and minerals have different tasks in the body.

• One of the main functions of vitamins is to help release the energy found in the food that you eat
• Vitamins help build protein and help your cells multiply
• They make collagen, which helps heal wounds, support blood vessel walls, and promote healthy bones and teeth
• Vitamins keep your eyes, skin, lungs, digestive tract and nervous system in good condition
• They build your bones, protect your vision, and interact with each other to help your body absorb the vitamins it needs to
• They protect you against diseases

• Minerals maintain the correct balance of water in your body
• They promote healthy bones and stabilise the protein structures that you get from the protein you eat, including those that make up your hair, skin, and nails
• They get the oxygen moving around your body
• Minerals assist in your ability to taste and smell

There are multiple food items that fulfil both macro and micronutrient functions. Incorporating these foods into your diet will allow your body to function at an optimal level. Other than oxygen and water, the food you eat is the only input your body has to perform the functions it needs for you to go about your daily life. The better quality the input, the better your body will be able to function and perform.

Understand the science behind what you eat for a healthier body with the Nutrition Science online short course from the Stanford Center for Health Education (SCHE).

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Understanding the nutritional data of your meals could therefore be a matter of life or death.

Since 1975, obesity has nearly tripled across the globe.³ Why? Quite simply, the demand for packaged food has increased and continues to rise, as has the variety of food products available in grocery stores.⁴ This variety of choice makes it hard for consumers to estimate how many kilojoules or nutrients they are consuming.

Understanding the nourishment and nutrition needed by the human body will better help you consume and utilise foods for optimal health and energy.⁵ Let’s start with the building blocks of all food: micronutrients and macronutrients.

What are micronutrients and macronutrients, and why are they important?

Micronutrients form part of the major food groups your body needs, including vitamins and minerals.⁶ Vitamins are responsible for energy production, immune function, blood clotting and other important functions, while minerals contribute to optimal growth, bone health, and fluid balance, amongst others.

Micronutrients are integral to the proper functioning of your body, and may help to ward off disease.⁷ This is because micronutrients are part of nearly every process in your body. Moreover, certain vitamins and minerals can act as antioxidants – a substance that can slow down or stop damage done to cells by free radicals.⁸

Macronutrients are found in the bulk of what is consumed on a daily basis:⁹

• Proteins. Often seen as the ‘building blocks of life’, proteins are made of amino acids, and intake should be limited to a maximum of one gram of protein per kilogram of lean body mass per day. Healthy protein sources are fish, grass-fed beef, free-range chickens and eggs, and seeds, nuts, and raw greens
• Carbohydrates. A great source of energy found in all foods, carbohydrates are composed of sugar or starches. It’s suggested that the net carb intake should be limited to a maximum of 30 to 40 grams per day. Carbohydrates that are high in fibre, such as vegetables, are a great source of healthy carbs
• Fats. Within this category, you find good and bad fats. To function optimally, your body needs good fats, such as saturated fats found in nuts and seeds, and omega-3 sources found in fatty fish and avocado

Tools and technology to discover nutritional data

Keeping track of the nutritional data of our meals on a daily basis can be challenging. Here are some of the useful apps and technology that you can use to discover the micronutrient and macronutrient data in your meal or meal plan.

• SELF Nutrition Data.¹⁰ Find personalised, detailed nutrition information, plus unique analysis tools that give you insight into how foods affect your health
• FoodPrint by Nutrino.¹¹ Nutrino uses data science, natural language processing, as well as mathematical models to provide nutrition information and technology to individuals seeking to improve their nutritional intake, as well as healthcare professionals who track patients’ nutrition. Their FoodPrint mobile app allows you to log your meals, as well as automatically import data from your other apps and devices. It provides personalised nutrition recommendations directly on screen and is especially helpful
• My Food Data.¹² This website offers a variety of nutrition data tools, such as a meal plan calculator, a comparison tool to compare carbs, proteins and fats, as well as a nutrient-ranking tool
• Nutrition Screen.¹³ This free, online screening tool can help people identify their eating habits over time, and includes nutrition education designed with older adults in mind
• Food Portions Toolkit.¹⁴ Gain practical tips on how to manage your food portions against a food servings guide
• PEN: Practice-Based Evidence in Nutrition®.¹⁵ This subscription service provides knowledge and insight for nutrition that is evidence-based, in answer to your nutrition practice questions

With the vast selection of ready-made meals, pre-packed food and groceries, attaining and maintaining optimal health through healthy food choices is a daily challenge, and one that should be taken seriously. With the use of these apps and nutrition-based technology, getting nutrition data about your food is made easier, and will ensure a healthier, optimal meal plan, and a healthier you.

Standford Centre for Health Education
Nutrition Science

The post Tips and Tools for Getting Nutrition Data appeared first on GetSmarter Blog.

A report by the Federal Reserve Board found that 44% of adult Americans could not come up with the $400 required in a medical emergency without turning to credit cards, family and friends, or selling off possessions, and 25% skipped medical treatments altogether due to unaffordability.² Sustainability through universal health coverage can ensure health services are made available to those who need them most, at the time they need it most. Reducing a country’s dependency on direct, out-of-pocket payments for healthcare removes any financial barriers to access, and lowers the financial impact of health payments.³

What is universal health coverage, or National Health Insurance (NHI)?

The main premise of healthcare financing is a pooling of funds in order to ensure healthcare needs are met, irrespective of an individual’s socioeconomic status.⁴ Universal health coverage provides access to vital health services, such as prevention, promotion, treatment, rehabilitation and palliative care, without the often restrictive, financial burden of having the funds on hand to pay for these services.⁵

For this to be effectively implemented, an efficient health system is needed to provide an entire population with quality services, health workers, medicines and technologies, as well as a finance system that will protect people that can’t afford to pay expensive medical fees.⁶ With this in mind, it is clear that universal health coverage cannot be achieved overnight, but countries can take steps to move towards it, or to maintain the gains they’ve already made.⁷

The financial sustainability of health systems

Phasing in universal healthcare to a country is an enormous undertaking financially. It is estimated that $274-371 billion will need to be spent on healthcare systems per year until 2030, in order for universal healthcare coverage (UHS) to be implemented. This accounts for only 67 countries, which represent 95% of the total population in low-income and middle-income countries.⁸

Around 75% of that spend will go towards health systems, with health workforce, infrastructure and medical equipment being the main cost drivers. Should this be successfully implemented, with gap funding from the World Health Organisation (WHO), up to 97 million lives could be saved, and life expectancy could increase by 3.1 to 8.4 years, depending on the country profile.

Image: Conceptual framework for transforming health systems towards SDG Three targets. Overall contextual factors include climate change, poverty, migration, and changes in the level and distribution of wealth. Country-specific contextual factors include epidemiological and demographic transitions, urbanisation, and recovery from conflict and disasters.

Universal healthcare financing that works

In 1948, WHO declared healthcare a basic human right, and as a result the demand for universal healthcare was born.⁹ Since then, many countries have successfully implemented sustainable health systems, thus ensuring doctors and hospitals provide citizens with quality care at an affordable rate, and using their financial leverage to influence healthcare providers.¹⁰

Australia, Canada, France, Germany, Singapore, and Switzerland use the healthcare financing model where the government pays private companies to deliver healthcare services to its citizens.¹¹ In the United Kingdom, the government both provides and finances the healthcare system.¹²

Implementing a national health financial system

The United Nation’s Sustainable Development Goals address global challenges faced by everyone, including poverty, inequality, climate, environmental degradation, prosperity, and peace and justice.¹³ One of these goals is to achieve universal health coverage, making provision for financial risk protection, giving access to quality essential healthcare services and access to safe, effective, and affordable essential medicines and vaccines for all.

According to McKinsey, a set of building blocks are needed before health system financing can transform emerging economies. These blocks create a cohesive system that will assist in delivering the best value for a country’s population.¹⁴

1. Start at the top. A strong commitment from the country’s leadership will ensure a successful health system transformation.
2. Additional funding. Regardless of the objective of healthcare financing, additional sources of funding will be required.
3. Who is purchasing? The ‘payer’ and ‘provider’ functions should be separated early on. Identifying a strategic purchaser organisation makes it easier to clarify responsibilities across typically rigid healthcare systems. It also opens the door for the introduction of market forces and performance-based competition across providers.¹⁵
4. Develop coding for payments. Providers will need to invest in coding capabilities in order to develop payment systems, and purchasers will need to develop auditing capabilities in order to control data quality.
5. Reimburse providers. A well-developed reimbursement model will incentivise providers to provide quality healthcare services in an efficient, cost-effective manner.
6. Increase provider autonomy. Autonomy can be granted to providers in three broad areas: financial management, personnel management, and the delivery of social services.

A sustainable approach would be to start slowly by increasing the number of health services, while simultaneously lowering the out-of-pocket costs to patients over time.

Challenges of implementing national health financial systems in developing economies

The biggest challenge for many emerging economies is that essential health services for diseases such as human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), tuberculosis, malaria, non-communicable diseases and mental health, sexual and reproductive health and child health, should be available to all who need them. However, given the proliferation of these diseases and the young population in low-income countries, these services cannot be offered to everyone at an affordable price.¹⁶

This is illustrated in Ethiopia’s Healthcare Financing Strategy (2015–2035). While the government is working toward universal health coverage, it acknowledges the challenges it faces to do so:¹⁷

• It has one of the lowest per-capita health expenditures in the world ($21)

• It leans heavily on donor funds (50% of total health spending)

• It’s out-of-pocket payments for medical services accounts for 34% of total health spending

It’s not uncommon for countries to combine universal health coverage with other financing models in order to foster healthy competition. Models such as: pay-as-you-go, prepay, and private healthcare insurance could serve as a means to potentially lower costs in a bid to be competitive, provide people with more healthcare alternatives, and potentially improve patient care.¹⁸

1. Pay as you go. This is as simple as arriving at a doctor, and paying for the cost of his time, and the medication. The financial benefit is that there are no monthly premiums, however, the financial risk is that the visit to the doctor or hospital could be crippling without insurance.
2. Prepaid health insurance.¹⁹ This is where a monthly amount is paid to a health insurance provider in order to mitigate the unforeseen expenses of a hospital or doctor visit. The benefit of this is that the payments are more affordable than the hefty once-off, pay-as-you-go approach. However, there are often limitations set by the insurance provider, depending on the scheme.
3. Private healthcare insurance.²⁰ This is where health insurance schemes are financed through private insurance premiums, or payments that a policyholder makes to cover medical expenses. This could be an employer who self-insures health coverage instead of contracting it to an insurance company.

Additional investments required in 67 low-income and middle-income countries to meet Sustainable Development Goal Three (US$2014 billion) (A) and additional resource needs by service delivery platform (B) in the ambitious scenario. Additional health programme costs include those that are programme-specific, but do not refer to specific drugs, supplies, or laboratory tests. Examples include costs for programme-specific administration staff, supervision, and monitoring relative to the services for which the programme provides leadership and oversight (e.g. the national malaria programme provides implementation guidance, and monitors and supervises service delivery for malaria). Other examples include mass media campaigns and demand generation.

Both businesses and investors are essential to support a country’s efforts of financing healthcare and providing sustainable health systems as part of the United Nation’s 169 targets,²¹ along with the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).²² Fundamentally, the basic building blocks of implementing healthcare financing are universal to all health system transformations, regardless of what model is chosen for implementation. These building blocks can serve to create tangible economic benefits and assist with the collection of new data that will inform policy and legislation makers going forward.²³

HARVARD'S VPAL
Global Health Delivery online short course

The post Healthcare Financing and the Sustainability of Health Systems appeared first on GetSmarter Blog.

A team of Sales Consultants can come with a large degree of varying personalities and selling styles, making the role of managing this team a highly interactive and often challenging one. The Sales Manager’s role cannot be understated. On top of having to motivate and guide a team at all times, as a Sales Manager, you’ll be expected to consistently meet your business’s desired goals and daily conversions.

Nazley Brooks, a Sales Manager in Sales and Enrolments at GetSmarter describes how entering this industry is perfect for a professional who has a passion for both people and consulting. As someone who has had experience in sales for over 13 years, she describes how a Sales Manager needs to also embrace the role of becoming a master of change.

What are the key responsibilities of a Sales Manager?

The role of a Sales Manager depends primarily on the industry and business you find yourself in. Nonetheless, the overarching responsibility of all Sales Managers is to convert leads into customers while managing the operations in between. A Sales Manager will also be expected to train up their team and introduce them to new conversion strategies.

Research has shown the majority of sales training fails with consultants forgetting 84% of the content they’ve just covered after 90 days.¹ Good managers are a rare find, but by consistently and proactively updating your own skills, your team is sure to follow suit.

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Working for a digital education company, Nazley has kept up-to-date with the skills relevant to the higher education environment, something often expected of Sales Managers in order to suit the environment they find themselves in. She completed online courses in values-based leadership and labour law to ensure she is leading with the right mindset and achieving performance goals.

Below are three key responsibilities relevant to any role in Sales Management:

What is the career path of a Sales Manager?

A career in sales comes with a large number of options, whether that means spending the majority of your time on the phone closing deals and converting leads, or sifting through and studying CRMs to reveal opportunities for optimisation. The sales career path can vary, but if you’re wanting to move up to management, simply being a great salesperson is not all it takes to get promoted.

Sales speaker and author, Dr Tony Alessandra describes how a good sales consultant might be great at working on their own and meeting targets, but without management skills and the ability to motivate others, it’s unlikely they will move up to the role of Sales Manager.²

Nazley’s job title went from Course Consultant to Lead Course Consultant to Unit Sales Manager to Program Manager, and then to Sales Manager – Head of Sales and Enrolments. Sales Managers are seen in every industry with most Sales Managers starting out as sales consultants and moving in the direction of:

• Marketing
• Business Development
• Sales Director
• Operations Management
• Project Management

Prince Nkosi, Unit Sales Manager at GetSmarter describes how he made his way from consulting in sales to management. “To become a manager, you need to lead from the front and have characteristics of integrity, patience, vision, and keenness to learn and improve. These are the three things I believe a consultant needs to have in order to move into management:

1. A passion for working with people: this really is number one because this job entails a lot of time spent with people.
2. A passion for the industry: you need to actually like the product you’re consulting on – this is what will add great value to your service.
3. A passion for ongoing learning: look into doing leadership courses and opportunities to learn – that’s why I’m currently taking the MBA essentials course with LSE because it’s opening my eyes to new developments and changes out there.”

Related Content: Find out which skills you need to enter the sales industry.

What is the potential salary for a Sales Manager?

As in most career paths, the salary you can expect for a position will rely a lot on the organisation and industry you enter. However, the sales industry highly values experience and skill gathering, with an emphasis on leadership development and lifelong learning.³

Sales specialist, Dr Tony Alessandra says by earning the following four key skills, you could see yourself moving into the position of Sales Manager and see your earnings increase:

1. Become a better listener rather than a good talker.
2. Develop your coaching skills rather than focusing on your individual sales skills.
3. Have superior people skills with emphasis on conflict-resolution.
4. Develop an understanding of the strengths and weaknesses of the individuals that form part of a sales team.⁴ 

Click on a country below to see what you can expect to get paid as a General Sales Manager in either South Africa, the United Kingdom or the United States of America:

What are the education and training requirements for a Sales Manager?

Many Sales Managers have a bachelor’s degree in business or marketing. Some companies will prefer to hire a professional with a Master’s degree. However, those with an abundance of experience might not need any educational formalities.⁵ If you’re wanting to move into the role of Sales Manager from a lower position, companies will favour those who have taken the initiative to gain specialised skills dependent on the company or industry.⁶  This can be done by studying online courses or studying further. Given the digital context of the current marketplace, Sales Managers will also do well by gaining the skill to gather and interpret data.

Nazley decided to study a data analysis online short course to remain relevant in this competitive industry.

“The nature of the environment we find ourselves in, where we are constantly dealing with data to understand the metrics, establishes how we manage people. Within sales, it’s essential to focus not only on qualitative metrics to lead a successful team, but also the quantitative metrics to understand the performance of the team. It’s important to balance both of these by studying data,” says Nazley.

Which skills do you need to advance your career as a Sales Manager?

Download a course prospectus to find out how one of these online short courses can help you become a Sales Manager.

¹Level Eleven
²Monster
³Peak Sales Recruiting
⁴Monster
⁵Study
⁶Study

The post How To Become A Sales Manager appeared first on GetSmarter Blog.

In Module 2 of the course, you’ll explore a “toolkit” of six social theories. They can be used to better understand the effects and limitations of global health interventions so that future projects are optimally designed and executed. This interactive infographic gives you a look into Module 2 of the Global Healthcare Delivery course – showcasing a summary of each of the social theories and an example to demonstrate their use.

This interactive infographic is best viewed on a desktop.

The six theories you’ll cover in Module 2 of the Global Health Delivery online short course:

1. The social construction of reality

Knowledge is constructed through perceptions or the outcomes of interactions between people. Over time, this knowledge is formalized through rules and habits, so that it eventually seems objective, and thus unquestionable.

2. Unintended consequences of purposive action

Deciding on a plan of action requires a choice informed by the decision maker’s knowledge, values, or motives. This choice influences the intended outcome, as well as any unexpected outcomes. These unintended outcomes may be positive or negative, but they’re often overlooked by the official outcome, resulting in poor understanding of their consequences.

3. Weber’s vision of modernity

Max Weber predicted that power in the 20th century would shift from families and communities to institutions and their associated bureaucracies. This resulted in organizations that can outlast their individual leaders or members but are also resistant to change, exceptions, or new ideas.

4. Local moral worlds

Shared value structures characterize different environments, and influence the actions of individuals who may or may not be in agreement with them. This theory also helps to identify how the values that people strive to live by may be greatly limited by the demands of the context they find themselves in.

5. Biopower

In contrast to times of sovereigns where monarchs had control over death, modern governments now control populations through the use of knowledge and systems that grant them surveillance. Individuals internalize the state’s control by regulating their actions in acknowledgment of being monitored.

6. Social suffering

Most health challenges originate from larger social forces (such as poverty or gender inequality) and often from the same structures (such as institutions or policies) created to counter these forces. Their consequences rarely affect an individual alone; their family and community also suffer.

Want to use social theories to ensure your health projects achieve success? Register for the Global Health Delivery online short course from Harvard’s VPAL.

REGISTER NOW

The post 6 Theories Explaining The Limitations of Global Health Interventions appeared first on GetSmarter Blog.